The South African Quarterly Journal was published by the South African Literary and Scientific Institution, which was formed through the amalgamation of the South African Institution (founded in August 1829) and the earlier South African Literary Society. Publication period: First series commenced February 1830; includes at least five numbers in the first series and four quarterly numbers in a second series (1833-1835). Notes on the publication dates of the series: 1st Series - Volume 1, numbers 1-5, October 1829 - October 1831 2nd Series - Volume 2, numbers 1-4, October 1833 - September 1835 3rd Series - Volume 3, number 1, December 1836 The journal was published in Cape Town in the early colonial period of the Cape Colony.
South African Intitution / South African Literary and Scientific Institution
This continuation of Dr Smith's "African Zoology" provides detailed taxonomic descriptions of several mammalian species belonging to the orders Insectivora and Carnivora, with a focus on specimens from South and Central Africa. Insectivora The text details three species of Chrysochloris (Golden Moles), distinguished by their metallic fur and strong fore-claws: Chrysochloris Capensis (Cape Mole): Deep green with a brilliant metallic/coppery gloss. Chrysochloris Hottentota (The Red Cape Mole, Smith): Reddish-brown with a metallic gloss, found in the Eastern Cape districts. Chrysochloris villosa (Natal Mole, Smith): Long, coarse tawny-brown fur sprinkled with dark brown, found towards Natal. Descriptions of three species of Centenes (Tenrec or Tandrac), characterized by spines/bristles and the inability to roll into a ball, are also included: C. setosus (Tandrac), C. spinosus (Tenrec), and C. semispinosus (Radiated Tenrec), all inhabiting Madagascar and Mauritius. Carnivora The section on Carnivora is divided into Plantigrada (full foot sole on ground) and Digitigrada (walking on toes): Plantigrada Ratellus typicus (The Ratel or Honey Badger): Distinguished by its robust figure and striking coloration—dull white upper parts contrasting sharply with pure black face, throat, and legs. Digitigrada The text provides detailed descriptions of several genera: Putorius (Weasels/Ferret): Including Furo (Ferret), P. Africanus (African Weasel), and P. Zorilla (Cape Weasel or Striped Muishond), known for its bushy tail and black/white striped back. Lutra (Otter): Including Lutra inunguis (Cape Otter), notable for having toes without nails. Canis (Jackals/Foxes/Wild Dogs): Features seven species, including the widely distributed aureus (Chacal) and several African endemics, characterized by variations in fur color, ear size, and tail markings: C. mesomelas (Cape Jackal), C. Niloticus (Egyptian Fox), C. variegatus, C. variegatoides (Vaal Jackal), C. familicus (Chesnut Jackal), C. Anthus (Senegal Jackal), C. pallidus, and C. Chama (The Asse or Cape Fox). Lycaon (African Wild Dogs): Features typicus (Burchell’s Lycaon) and L. pictus (Ruppeli's Lycaon), noted for their irregular, blotched coloration and the difference in their vocalizations (shrill "ho, ho, ho" instead of barking). Viverra and Genetta: Includes the description of Viverra Civetta (The Civet) and an incomplete description of Genetta vulgaris? (Common Genet). The entry includes detailed dental formulas for each genus and references to synonymy and habitat.
This report summarises the proceedings of a meeting of the South African Institution held on November 6th, 1833, focusing primarily on contributions to Zoology and Geographical Discovery. The proceedings began with a report from the Secretary acknowledging the donation of two significant zoological specimens from the Rev. Dr Philip, both sourced from the interior, east of Latakoo: a Manis Temminckii (Pangolin) and a Python Natalensis (Natal Rock Python). Dr Smith confirmed that the python species is also found near Port Natal. The ornithologist Mr Verreaux then presented and formally characterised three bird specimens recently received from Madagascar, which he considered new to science: Accipiter Madagascariensis (a hawk/goshawk). Glareola ocularis (a pratincole, distinguished by a fine white stripe under each eye). Rallus Madagascariensis (a rail). The meeting also received an important contribution to geography from the Rev. Mr Wright, of the London Missionary Society, who used a Trochiometer (a device attached to a wagon wheel to measure distance) to determine the distance between Griqua Town and Cape Town, via Beaufort, as 622 English miles. Finally, the reading of Mr Chase’s paper, "An Account of the Progress of Geographical Discovery in the African Continent made from the Cape of Good Hope," was concluded, detailing various attempts to explore the South-east Coast and summarising the resulting geographical information.
Proceedings of the South African Institution, 1833
First section: This report details a phrenological experiment conducted by Dr John Elliotson, President of the London Phrenological Society, to assess the character of a deceased individual solely based on the examination of their skull structure. The skull belonged to a notorious convict named "Jack Turpin." Ignoring details about the deceased's life, Dr Elliotson provided a detailed character analysis: Strong Passions: Excessively strong and an overbalance for his intellect. Disposition: Prone to great violence, but not courageous; extremely cautious and sly, and fond of "getting" (acquisition/covetiveness). Animal Propensity: Positive Quality: A very remarkable love of offspring (children). Intellectual Quality: Great, probably dry wit and the potential to be a good mimic. Upon receiving the analysis, Elliotson's correspondent confirmed that the description was "singularly correct in every particular," affording a new and powerful proof of phrenology. The report addresses sceptics who suggested Elliotson had prior knowledge, with the Doctor formally asserting that his conclusions were drawn "solely from the size of the various parts of the skull," and he was "totally uninformed" about the individual's life until after the assessment. Subsequent observation of the convict's character confirmed his severe, sarcastic wit, mimicry of others, and strong attachment to his children, evidenced by his last act of devoting his property to them. The report concludes with a resolution from the Rochester Literary Club, stating that the exact correspondence between the phrenological analysis and the convict's history suggests the coincidence is not chance, offering a strong foundation for the truth of phrenology. Second section: This extract details the research recommendations proposed by the Sub-Committees of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) to systematically advance several key scientific fields. Meteorology The committee stressed the need for systematic direction in Meteorology, proposing: Establishing an hourly register of the thermometer at a military/naval station in Southern England to better understand the phenomena and distribution of diurnal temperature. Requesting the Committee in India to establish similar hourly meteorological registers, especially to study inter-tropical climate and the horary oscillations of the barometer near the equator. Recommending a series of experiments by Mr Phillips and Mr William Grey to study the comparative quantities of rain falling at different heights (e.g., on top of York Minster vs. the ground). Calling for a satisfactory exposition of the theory of the moistened bulb hygrometer and comparative experiments on the indications of the moistened thermometer and the dew point (using Mr Dalton’s or Mr Daniell’s Hygrometer). Recommending experiments on the decrease of temperature at increasing heights in the atmosphere. Encouraging observations on the temperature of springs at different heights and depths, noting its importance for studying the progressive increase of temperature within the globe (geothermal gradient) and the difference between the earth's and air's mean temperatures in various latitudes. Magnetism and Electro-Magnetism The committee recommended: Undertaking a series of observations on the Intensity of Terrestrial Magnetism in various parts of England using a standard needle (like the one constructed under Professor Hansteen). Making observations with the Dipping Needle across Britain to reduce the horizontal magnetic intensity to the true magnetic intensity. Further prosecuting the examination of the Electro-Magnetic condition of Metalliferous Veins, building upon the work of Mr Fox.
British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS)
Observations on the circumstances producing ignition in charcoal in atmospheric temperatures
This article, written by Mr William Hatfield, abridged from the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine for July 1833, details observations and experiments concerning the phenomenon of spontaneous combustion in charcoal at atmospheric temperatures. The author highlights the serious safety and property risks posed by this occurrence, particularly in settings such as gunpowder factories where large quantities of charcoal are used. Hatfield notes that spontaneous combustion is most common when large quantities of charcoal, especially in a state of minute division (pulverised or small fragments), are gathered in heaps. While manufacturers often attribute this phenomenon to insufficient cooling after production, the author provides anecdotal evidence of ignition occurring in charcoal that had been made and freely exposed to the atmosphere for several days. Two specific accidental cases are described: one where a large, compressed load ignited during transport, and another where a large heap of pulverised, multi-day-old charcoal ignited in a storage building, leading to a fire. The author hypothesises that in transport/storage incidents, the pressure and friction from pieces rubbing together cause pulverisation, creating a compact mass at the bottom, which is prone to self-heating. Hatfield describes a series of direct experiments (Exp. 1-4) to investigate the cause: Experiments 1-3 used small quantities (120 lbs) of charcoal (old, fresh, and coarse powder) in a barrel. These trials showed a temporary temperature increase (up to 130∘F) followed by a decline to ambient temperature, confirming that small quantities do not spontaneously combust. Experiment 4 used a larger quantity (10 cwt or 1,000 lbs) of finely ground, new charcoal in a hogshead. The internal temperature steadily rose from 65∘F to 180∘ or 190∘F, at which point combustion occurred internally, surprisingly near the surface. A final observation details a large heap of small charcoal igniting in several places over three to seven days, even after being soaked with water, reinforcing the persistent danger. The article concludes that the degree of pulverisation and the sheer quantity/volume of the charcoal are key factors in producing ignition.
An account of the Amakosae, a tribe of Caffers adjoining the Eastern Boundary of the Cape Colony
This continuation of the ethnographic study (see https://doi.org/10.21504/saqj.21.2689 and https://doi.org/10.21504/saqj.21.2692) offers a detailed examination of the domestic and cultural life of the Amakosae (Xhosa). The text details the Amakosae's method of kindling fire using the friction of two sticks before their interaction with Europeans. A significant portion is dedicated to their spiritual beliefs and customs. The author notes the absence of formal religion or worship, but observes an imperfect idea of a Supreme Being who takes cognisance of actions. Practices such as slaying and consuming cattle or throwing pieces of meat into rivers are interpreted as vestiges of ceremonial worship, either for averting evil from specific afflictions (mortality among cattle, dangerous river crossings) or, in the case of rituals at birth, circumcision, and marriage, as remnants of thank offerings to a Beneficent Deity. The author speculates that the Amakosae are descendants of people from the east who gradually lost their original knowledge and fell to their "present low estate" during their progressive migrations. The account then transitions to a detailed linguistic analysis based on descriptions by Missionaries, presenting the Caffrarian (Xhosa) alphabet, including the vowels and consonants and their respective sounds. Particular attention is given to the unique and complex klicks (semidental, palatal, and lingual, denoted by C, Q, and X) and the hard guttural (R), as well as various compound consonant sounds (e.g., Dw, Dzh, Tsh, Khl). The rules for syllable division and word accent (penultimate accent, often shifting upon inflexion) are also described. This section offers valuable early documentation of the Xhosa language's phonology.
This second instalment (see https://doi.org/10.21504/saqj.21.2691 for the first part) of Dr Smith's "African Zoology" provides detailed taxonomic descriptions for numerous species of mammals, divided into three orders: Quadrumana (Primates/Lemurs), Cheiroptera (Bats), and Feral (represented here by Insectivora). Order Quadrumana (Primates/Lemurs): Dr Smith establishes three new or detailed genera primarily from Madagascar, emphasising their distinct dental formulas, which are provided using precise numerical notation (e.g., incisors, canines, molars). Genus Macromerus (Smith, new genus): Defined by a specific dental formula (i44​,c11​,m55​ total 30) and unique physical traits, notably very long thighs and specialised finger nails (flat and pointed, except for the long, slender nail of the index finger). Macromerus typicus (Long-legged Lemur): Described as a beautiful species found in the interior of Madagascar, distinguished by its white facial circle contrasting with deep, clear black and silvery grey fur on the body. Genus Cheiromys (Cuvier): Characterised by strong, compressed incisors (i22​,c00​,m44​ total 18) and a long, bushy tail. Cheiromys Madagascariensis (The Aye Aye): A ferruginous brown creature with a long tail, also confirmed to inhabit Madagascar. Genus Cheirogaleus (Geoffroy): Defined by a complex six-molar dentition (i44​,c11​,m66​ total 36) and a rounded head with eyes approaching. Cheirogaleus typicus and other species are detailed as inhabiting Madagascar. Order Cheiroptera (Bats): The text then moves to the Order Cheiroptera (Bats), defined by their large, membrane-supported wings. Descriptions are given for numerous species across multiple genera, differentiating them by their dental formulas, nasal appendages, ears, and tail structure (presence/absence of a tail or how much it is enveloped by the interfemoral membrane). Genus Pteropus (Rousettes/Flying Foxes): Large bats, mostly tailless, including Pteropus Edwardii (Madagascar) and Pteropus Leachii (South Africa). Genus Nyctinomus: Characterised by a long tail extending beyond the interfemoral membrane. Includes species from Egypt and South Africa (e.g., Nyctinomus Condylurus found near Port Natal). Genus Rhinolophus: Noted for the nasal crest or leaf, including Rhinolophus clivosus, found commonly near Cape Town. Genus Vespertilio (Common Bats): Large section detailing numerous species, including several described by Smith from the Cape Colony and Natal (e.g., Vespertilio Capensis, Vespertilio Hottentota, Vespertilio Dinganii). Order Feral (Insectivora): The survey briefly concludes with the Family Insectivora, specifically the genus Erinaceus. Genus Erinaceus (Hedgehog): Erinaceus frontalis (Cape Hedgehog): A South African species distinguished by its short, black muzzle, short ears and tail, and a broad white band across the forehead and chest, found in the northern parts of Graaff-Reinet towards Latakoo. The document serves as a major compilation of African mammalian biodiversity, using rigorous systematic methodology (including detailed cranio-dental data) based largely on specimens collected and curated in South Africa.
Proceedings of the South African Literary and Scientific Institution
This record details the proceedings of the South African Literary and Scientific Institution meeting held on 2 October 1833, focusing on the presentation of several newly described South African bird species by Dr Smith. Dr Smith formally brought several South African birds to the attention of the Society, providing detailed descriptions and assigning new scientific names to at least three specimens: Crithagra albogularis (White-throated Canary/Finch): Described by its greenish-grey upper parts, greenish-yellow rump, and distinctive white chin, throat, and eyebrows. The length is recorded as five and a half inches. The description notes an existing controversy, mentioning that Sir Wm. Jardine considered it the female of Crithagra sulphurata, an assertion contradicted by Dr Smith's observation that the two birds are never found associated or in the same localities. Corythaix concolor (Grey Lourie/Turaco): Described by its long crest and overall greyish plumage, faintly mottled with dull reddish-white lines. Notable features include a very long, hoary-grey tail with a deep greenish gloss. The total length is nineteen inches, and its habitat is specified as South Africa, inland of Port Natal. Dr Smith remarked that its bill shape differs from the typical genus species and suggested it might necessitate a new division, Corythaixoides, in future classification. Francolinus Natalensis (Natal Francolin/Partridge): Characterised by its light brown plumage finely mottled with black and tawny white on the head and back, with longitudinal black blotches on the scapulars. The breast and sides of the neck are variegated black and white. It has a reddish-brown bill and reddish-yellow legs. The length is twelve and a half inches, and it inhabits brushwood thickets in the vicinity of Natal. The proceedings reflect the Institution's commitment to the precise identification, classification, and study of the natural history of South Africa, based on the field work of its members, particularly Dr Smith.
South African Literary and Scientific Institution
This continuation of the ethnographic study (see https://doi.org/10.21504/saqj.21.2689) offers a detailed examination of the domestic and cultural life of the Amakosae (Xhosa). Domestic Life and Economy Xhosa kraals (villages) are situated on high ground near water sources and consist of semi-hemispherical huts built from bent boughs, thatched with grass, and plastered inside with cow-dung and sand. The huts enclose a central cattle-fold. Agriculture is practised in nearby fields, where crops such as corn, melons, pumpkins, and beans are cultivated, with children assigned to protect the crops from birds and cattle. Harvested grain is stored in underground pits within the cattle kraal. A distinct division of labour exists: Men: Primarily responsible for cattle herding (their chief attention), milking, fold maintenance, hunting, snaring, and making milk bags. Women: Manage the laborious tasks of fetching wood and water, building and plastering the huts, cultivating and harvesting the corn, and preparing food and apparel (using an awl and ox-fibre thread). Physical Characteristics and Health The Xhosa are described as being of dark brown colour, well-proportioned, acute in sight and hearing, possessing great agility, but averse to labour. Diseases noted include taenia (tapeworm), dyspnoea, and rheumatism. Treatment often involves bloodletting via scarification/cupping, herbal purgatives/emetics, and application of moxa (recently substituted with gunpowder) for pain. Beliefs and Superstition A significant portion of the text addresses supernatural beliefs. Illnesses of an unusual nature are attributed to witchcraft or poison. Igiaka (Doctors) claim to charm noxious animals or objects (bewitching matter) from the sick person. Igiaka-isi-nusikaza ("discoverers of bewitching matter") are employed to identify the witch, often leading to torture and property confiscation, and sometimes used by chiefs to eliminate wealthy or powerful subjects. The document also describes the role of the Igiaka-lumsulu (rain doctors), whose rituals involve offerings, feasting, and the strict observance of behavioural instructions by warriors to ensure rain. Superstitions include avoiding harm to crested cranes and fearing retribution from elephants if their territory is disturbed. Social Customs and Rites Marriage is a recognised contract involving the purchase of the woman from her parents with cattle (plurality of wives is permitted). The status of women is described as akin to that of a master and a slave. Circumcision is performed on boys, sometimes at an early age (as young as six), using a sharp stone, as it confers the privilege of residing at the chief's place. This is followed by a period of seclusion (two to three moons) where the initiates avoid women and wear reed girdles, concluding with the burning of their temporary hut and apparel. Girls undergo a brief seclusion upon the first appearance of puberty, followed by a celebratory feast where the future marriage cattle price is declared. Death and Manufacturing On the death of a common person, their body is buried in holes made by ant bears, and the survivor undergoes a period of seclusion, followed by the burning of the deceased's hut and the shaving of all relatives' heads. Chiefs and their families are buried in the cattle kraal; their death imposes a taboo on the surrounding land, cattle, and pathways. Historically, the chief claimed all the deceased's cattle, a practice recently abandoned by some chiefs in favour of appointing a guardian for the family. The only distinct manufactory is the production of assagai heads, axe heads, and awls by esteemed craftsmen, utilising hard stones as tools and a unique bellows made from an entire buckskin.
This work is presented as an Epitome of African Zoology, intended to serve as a concise and accessible guide to the animals inhabiting Africa, its islands, and surrounding seas. Authored by Dr A. Smith, M.D., it was commissioned by the South African Literary and Scientific Institution in 1833 to address the significant lack of readily available, organised information on local natural history. Dr Smith acknowledges that while systematic works on zoology exist, the relevant African data is scattered, making it inaccessible to most individuals in the region. His compilation aims to bring together all available information in a concise and connected form, with the hope of inspiring others to fill the gaps. The author notes that the details relating to South Africa are "tolerably complete," as they were supplied from Dr Smith's personal observations and research. However, information concerning other parts of Africa is acknowledged to be more deficient, having been gathered from limited sources. The work employs standard Linnaean taxonomic classification, introducing the method used by naturalists to indicate the dental formula of mammiferous animals using fractional notation (e.g., incisors i44​, canines c11​, molars m55​), and proceeds to describe specific orders and genera, such as the genus Troglodytes (e.g., Troglodytes niger or Chimpanzee). The document thus marks a significant early effort to systematically catalogue and formalise the zoological knowledge of the region based on local observation.
A notice of the progress of the expedition lately sent out from Liverpool to trade in the Niger
This document reports on the initial progress and severe setbacks faced by a Liverpool-funded expedition sent to establish trade on the Niger River in 1833, utilising two steamships and a provision brig. The expedition, which was mostly staffed by personnel unfamiliar with the coast, suffered immediate and devastating sickness and mortality shortly after departing Sierra Leone, leading to "discontent, approaching to mutiny." A critical error identified was the failure to employ Kroomen for demanding tasks such as wooding and watering, which forced unacclimated officers and men into dangerous exposure during the rainy season. The vessels arrived at the River Nun entrance in October 1832. Internal friction arose when Mr Lander (already famous for his Niger discoveries) was unexpectedly relegated from command within the river to the son of a principal owner. Despite this, Lander facilitated diplomatic relations and trade. Highlights included a successful meeting with a chief who had previously aided Lander, resulting in exchanges of gifts, including British uniforms and arms. However, the expedition faced increasing challenges upriver: Navigational Difficulties: The river proved to be shallow, with steamers stirring up mud at a depth of six feet. Commercial Opposition: The local Bonney people actively sought to undermine the new trade by bribing chiefs to oppose the expedition's progress. Conflict: The vessels were eventually forced to burn several villages due to continuous annoyance and firing from inhabitants. After four to five months upriver, almost all personnel had been sick or died. Lander himself, suffering from dysentery and lack of proper attendance, was forced to return downriver to the brig and eventually reached Fernando Po for recuperation in April 1833. The overall sentiment, according to Lander, was that the expedition could still succeed with alterations, primarily the crucial employment of Kroomen for boat work. The report concludes with Lander's intention to leave the coast for government employment in England, citing the company's failure to provide for his family in the event of his death.
This abridged account, written by Assistant Staff-Surgeon N. Morgan, provides a detailed ethnographic and historical overview of the Amakosae (sic) (Xhosa) tribe, who abutted the Eastern Boundary of the Cape Colony in the early 1830s. The paper begins by tracing the history of European encroachment at the Cape, noting that Dutch expansion and aggressive land acquisition led to the subjugation of the original Khoi inhabitants. It establishes that the Xhosa, simultaneously expanding from the east, met the colonists around the formation of the Graaff-Reinet district (c. 1786), resulting in a century of conflict marked by seizure, conquest, and predatory incursions. By 1825, the Xhosa had been forced to relinquish land west of the Keiskamma River, transitioning into a trading relationship with the colonists. The text describes the Xhosa territory's rectangular geography (approx. 10,000 square miles), bounded by mountains, the Bashee River, and the sea, noting its healthy climate and abundance of Mimosa and bush. A detailed account of Xhosa political history and genealogy follows, despite the challenges of relying on oral tradition. The Chiefs trace their lineage back to a common ancestor, Um Conde, approximately two centuries prior. The account focuses on the major political division between the line of U'Caleka (leading to the principal chief U'Henza) and the line of U'Raraba (leading to Gika and his regent, U'Maaquomo), detailing the civil wars and external conflicts (especially against the Tambookies).
Rules and Regulations of the South African Institution
This document, "RULES REGULATIONS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTION," printed in Cape Town in 1830, formally establishes the rules and structure for a scientific and exploratory body founded on June 17, 1829. The primary objective of the Institution is to investigate the Geography, Natural History, and general Resources of South Africa. Key Rules and Organisational Structure Support and Membership: The Institution is funded by contributions, subscriptions, and other resources. It comprises several membership categories: Ordinary Members (who hold voting power), Privileged Members, Honorary Members (eminent scientists residing abroad), Corresponding Members (those promoting the Institution's objectives), and Annual Subscribers (both Resident and Non-Resident). Admission for Ordinary and Corresponding Members requires a recommendation and a ballot. Governance: The Institution is led by Office-Bearers elected annually from the Ordinary Members, including a Patron (optional Chairman), a President (Chairman in Patron's absence), Four Vice Presidents, a Treasurer, Two Secretaries, and Nine Members of Council. The Council is responsible for the sole charge of funds, making By-Laws, and managing Repositories, with major property sales or purchases requiring sanction from Ordinary Members. Activities and Meetings: General Monthly Meetings (last Wednesday of the month) are held for hearing approved Essays, Communications, and Committee Reports. General Annual Meetings (first Monday in June) include reports from officers, a discourse on the progress of knowledge, and the election of Office-Bearers. The Museum, Gardens, and other Repositories are to be open to the public under Council-fixed regulations. Initial Members: The document includes a list of initial Privileged Members (including His Excellency the Hon. Sir G. L. Cole) and numerous Ordinary Members (e.g., Rev. Dr Adamson, Rev. F. Fallows, Dr Smith), demonstrating immediate, high-level support within the Colony. In summary, the document outlines the foundational constitution of a significant early South African scientific society, detailing its purpose, funding, membership classifications, and a comprehensive governance framework.
Proceedings of the Natural History Society of the Mauritius
The proceedings detail the vibrant activity of the Natural History Society of the Mauritius between October 1830 and August 1831, emphasising the acquisition of its first official meeting space at the Royal College and the commencement of its Library and Herbarium. Highlights of the sessions include: Recognition and Growth: The Society established formal reciprocal membership and publication agreements with the South African Institution. It received high international praise, notably from Baron Cuvier, who ordered his bust to be presented (which arrived on the second anniversary of his birthday, August 24, 1831). Mr W. Bojer received a gold medal and 1,000 piastres from the Emperor of Austria for his work. Scientific Reports: Papers covered diverse local subjects: the description of a new fish genus, Platésome (Battoir); an analysis of the Polypes and Polypiers (corals); the observation of rare birds like the Cuckoo (Cuculus Canorus); and a geological description of the Souffleur (Southern coast). Technological and Applied Science: Discussions included Captain Pole's new method for steam-ships, Dr. Lyall's demonstration of an Apparatus for rapid cooking, and his lecture on the use of lime (specifically avoiding Madrepore lime) for sugar clarification. Significant Historical/Fossil Find: A critical note clarifies that bone fragments believed to belong to the Dodo (Didus ineptus) were found in a cavern on Isle Rodrigue in 1786, not accidentally among Mauritius fossils, as previously reported by European journals. Physical Observations: Mr. Faraguet presented a geometric table on the variation of sea temperature with depth (based on Astrolabe data), and a report confirmed that the heat in Cornish mines increases by 1∘ Fahrenheit for every 65 feet of depth. Foreign Relations: The Queen of the Ovas in Madagascar sponsored a course in practical chemistry for her subjects. The Society also received donations and reports from visitors concerning New Zealand cannibalism and the volcanic eruptions on Bourbon.
Natural History Society of the Mauritius
Natural History Society of the Mauritius -- Proceedings of
This Annual Report chronicles the establishment and first year of operations for the revitalised Natural History Society of the Mauritius, which began its formal labours in 1829. The report details the Society's broad scientific engagement across various disciplines, with the central aim of compiling a comprehensive Fauna and Flora of Mauritius. Key Achievements and Papers: Physical Sciences: Proposals were made by Mr. Hioart for establishing a Meteorological Observatory to predict the approach of hurricanes. Geology: Members studied the island's volcanic structure (Geognosie), debunking the Madrepore theory for the Isle of Ambre. Mr G. Bouton concluded that the Grand Basin rests in an extinct volcano crater. Botany: The section highlights descriptive works on indigenous and cultivated species, including Mr W. Bojer's description of the new Hybiscus Genevii and his work documenting over 70 varieties of the Mango. Mr G. Bouton investigated the unusual phenomenon of a fruit-bearing male Papaw tree. Zoology: Mr J. Desjardins compiled a memoir on the 26 species of mammals on the island (mostly introduced). Extensive work was done on Birds and Reptiles, including the description of three new skinks (Scincus Telfairii, S. Bojerii, S. Boutonii). Papers were presented on the local fish, annelids, and Crustacea, with Mr Delisse (Father) proposing a new crustacean genus, Scyllibacus. The rare appearance of a snake, Coluber rufus, was noted. The report concludes by noting the Society is thriving, with 39 members, financial resources, and a treasury of more than 50 memoirs and descriptions produced in its first year.
Section 1: Poisoning Investigation in Paris This article details a judicial and chemical investigation into a series of food poisoning cases that occurred among the customers of a Paris pastry-cook after consuming a ham-pie. The initial case involved a family of three who suffered severe symptoms approximately three hours after eating the ham, including violent pain, vomiting, extreme tenderness of the belly, and profuse purging. The attending physician suspected carbonate of copper (natural verdigris) from the pastry-cook's moulds. However, a subsequent chemical analysis of the pie's remains and the patient's discharges, conducted by M. Olivier and M. Barruel, disproved this initial suspicion. Using reagents such as sulphuretted hydrogen, nitric acid, and ferrocyanate of potash on incinerated and extracted samples, the analysts concluded that there was no trace of arsenic, copper, antimony, or lead in the remains. M. Olivier's final conclusion was that the ham had, in some manner, acquired the "poisonous properties sometimes remarked in German sausages, cheese, and ham," suggesting a form of bacterial spoilage or ptomaine poisoning rather than heavy metal contamination. Section 2: Criminal Convictions in the Cape Colony (Autumn 1830) This is a statistical table summarising the Criminal Convictions handed down at the Circuit Courts of the Cape Colony during the Autumn of 1830, presented before the Hon. Mr Justice Menzies. The table records a total of 102 convictions across ten different magisterial districts (e.g., Albany, Graaff-Reinet, Stellenbosch). The most frequent crimes were Theft (52 convictions) and Assault (20 convictions). The convictions are broken down by race, revealing the demographic composition of those found guilty: Europeans: 50 convictions Khoi: 31 convictions San: 12 convictions Africans: 8 convictions Slaves: 1 conviction The table provides a clear, quantitative snapshot of the colonial judicial proceedings and the prevalence of various crimes among different population groups in the Cape Colony during that period.
At the first meeting (date unclear, but preceding September 1st), Dr Bailey and Mr Nisbet were elected Ordinary Members. Lieutenant I. Biddulph, R.N., of Bathurst, was elected a Corresponding Member. Two scientific papers were read: A continuation of "Remarks on the Geology of South Africa" by the Rev. Dr Thom of Tulbagh. A continuation of the "History of the Cape Colony" by the Rev. M. Borcherds of Stellenbosch, covering the second year of Van Riebeeck's government. Items tabled included a Register of the weather at Algoa Bay during 1826 and 1828, forwarded by Captain Evatt, and a Chart of the Harbour at Port Natal, forwarded by Mr Frances. At the Ordinary Monthly Meeting held on Wednesday, September 1st, Mr J. Cloete of Cape Town was admitted as a member. The papers read were: A continuation of "Remarks on the Culture of Exotic Vegetables" by Mr Bowie. Extracts from the Journal of Mr Andrew Bain, detailing his visit to some of the interior tribes. Both the Bowie and Bain papers were printed in that issue of the South African Journal.
This section of "Miscellaneous Intelligence" covers a wide array of topics related to gardening, agriculture, natural history, and colonial news, primarily through notes compiled from Loudon’s Gardener's Magazine and various scientific society reports. Horticulture and Products: The section details successful methods for packing fruit trees for exportation (using earth/water paste and either a mat or wet moss, with a preference for the mat method). An account of Mr. Knight's visit to Haarlem describes the extensive Hyacinth bulb cultivation, noting the extremely light, sandy soil and the practice of using liquid cow-dung to stabilize the surface. The notes also describe various unusual pyramidal and dwarf-trained fruit trees. Colonial Agriculture: Reports from New South Wales indicate great success with tobacco and promising futures for the opium poppy, olive tree, and vine, suggesting wine and oil could become major exports. It defends the appearance of native Australian foliage, attributing its "grotesque" reputation to the practice of burning forests. Materia Medica and Botany: Several medicinal plants are described: the Columbo root (Locculus-palmatus) from East Africa (used for dysentery), Angustura bark (Bomplandia) from South America (a tonic), and various uses of oak bark and Croton Eleuteria. Detailed instructions are provided for cultivating the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) and preparing opium, noting successful trials in Britain. Also described are the unique Balsam of Gilead (Amyris gileadensis) and the geographically restricted Double Cocoa-nut palm (Seychelles). Medical and Practical Use: D. Fanning reports on the curative powers of the Guaco Plant in South America against the bites and stings of poisonous snakes, as well as its use for rheumatism and gout. Separate notes recommend growing tobacco plants for preparing a decoction to use as an effective insecticide for cottagers, alongside the use of lime-water. Agriculture & Science: Notes cover Mr. Petri's theory that frequent early shearing of sheep increases the fineness and quantity of wool by directing nutritive fluids to the skin. Other agricultural points discuss the deterioration of soil (sagiline) through sun and air exposure, and the advantages of deep wells for irrigation being adopted across France. Foreign Intelligence: A note on Dr. Siebold details his arrest in Japan for obtaining maps of the empire, highlighting the country's strict exclusion policy toward Europeans.
This article provides a record and explanation of the appearances observed during the Total Lunar Eclipse of September 2, 1830. The author prefaces the description by noting the superior clarity and distinctness of celestial objects when viewed through the pure atmosphere of the observation location, compared to those in the North. The paper first explains the mechanics of an eclipse, defining the two parts of the Earth's shadow: the dark inner umbra and the lighter outer penumbra. The primary focus, however, is on the effects of the Earth's atmosphere, which significantly modifies the Moon's appearance during an eclipse: Refraction: The bending of the Sun's rays as they pass through the atmosphere shortens the umbral cone, ensuring the Moon rarely disappears completely, as it receives light even in the darkest part of the shadow. The author references La Place's calculation that this refracted light makes the Moon's centre only about one-fiftieth of its full brilliance. Dispersion: The scattering of light into different colours (like a prism) is responsible for the Moon's colour. During the greatest obscurity, the Moon exhibited a "fiery brazzy hue" (reddish-orange), caused by the lower, denser atmosphere refracting mainly red rays inward. The penumbra had a purple tint. The author also makes observations on the Moon's surface during the eclipse, noting that different portions shone with different degrees of brightness, particularly a ring of greater illumination around the disc, broadest toward the poles. This observation leads to a discussion of the possibility of water/snow on the Moon, concluding that due to the rare, shallow atmosphere and cold temperatures, any water must exist as a "covering of changeless snow."
This article, a collection of geological notes by Mr Grisbrook, summarises various mineral and fossil discoveries across several regions of the Cape Colony (now South Africa). The observations highlight the abundance of: Fossils: The Zwart-kop and Zondag Rivers (Uitenhage District) are noted for their rich marine petrifactions and vegetable fossils. The Cedar-Mountains and Bokkeveldts are cited as the main source for the extensive collection of the colonial geologist, Dr Thom. Minerals: Discoveries include Martial-pyrites and quartz in the Zwart Ruggens; exceptional hexagonal quartz (including fluid-filled specimens) at Bruintjes Hoogte; carbonate of lime and the "beautiful green mineral" Prehnite in the Sneeuwbergen; and agates, crystalline substances, and amianthus along the Orange River. Namaqualand is known for its iron ores, and the Kamies Mountains are renowned for their mica, quartz, and feldspar deposits. Formations: The Cango Caverns and the caverns at the Knysna River entrance are noted for large crystalline carbonate of lime formations (stalactites). The paper also references the valuable limestone quarries on the Oliphants River and the geological interest of the deep ravines near George, which reveal the nature of the great primitive mountain range base. Fossil Wood: The remains of a significant fossil tree near Plettenberg's Bay are mentioned, with specimens housed in the Cape Town Museum. The notes serve as a descriptive inventory of significant mineralogical and palaeontological sites, providing valuable, though unsynthesized, geological intelligence for the region.
Analysis of the calcareous tuffa at Green Point
This article is a letter from J. H. Trepgorp to Dr A. Smith, detailing the chemical analysis of a specimen of calcareous tuffa (limestone) collected from Green Point, Cape Town (Cape Colony). The author performed several experiments on 100-grain samples of the stone: Sulphuric Acid Treatment: This method isolated and measured the Aluminous earth content, which was determined to be 4 grains (4%). Nitric Acid Treatment: This experiment measured the volatile components and the insoluble residue. It expelled 38 grains of Carbonic Acid and left 12 grains (12%) of Siliceous earth undissolved. Calcination: By heating the sample, the total loss of mass was 42 grains. Allowing 4 grains for water, the remaining 38 grains confirm the proportion of Carbonic Acid. From these results, Mr Trepgorp concluded the approximate composition of the stone per 100 lbs. is: Carbonate of Lime: ≈ 84 lbs. Siliceous Earth: 12 lbs. Aluminous Earth: 4 lbs. (Including a small portion of water) The analysis identifies the stone as being primarily Carbonate of Lime.
On human Bones discovered in the caves of France
This article (abridged from the Edinburgh Journal of Science, No. V.) reports on the discovery of human bones and artefacts mixed with the remains of extinct fauna in three distinct caves in France: Bize, Pondres, and Souvignargues. In the Caverns of Bize, human bones and teeth were found in both calcareous concretions and in the black and red mud, alongside marine and land shells and fragments of earthenware. In the Caverns of Pondres, human remains and pottery were similarly confounded with those of a diverse terrestrial mammalian fauna, including species like rhinoceros, aurochs, various horses, deer, and the fossil hyena (Hyæna Spelæa). The remains in Souvignargues were found close to the underlying rock. A key focus of the comparison was to establish the antiquity of the human remains. By comparing the cave bones with those from ancient Gaulish sarcophagi (dated 14 to 15 centuries old), the bones from the caves were inferred to belong to an epoch far remoter. Furthermore, the crude nature of the accompanying pottery suggested it belonged to the "first infancy of human arts," predating Roman influence in Gaul. M. de Serres concludes that: Since the appearance of man, certain species of terrestrial mammalia have been completely destroyed (extinct). The remains of our species are incontestably mixed and found in the same geological circumstances with certain terrestrial mammalia previously considered antediluvian. This challenges the contemporary view that humans did not coexist with these ancient, extinct species.
This article presents one of the earliest detailed clinical, pathological, and epidemiological accounts of the disease historically known as “Horse Sickness” in the Cape Colony, now recognised as African horse sickness. Drawing on nine years of observation in the Graaff-Reinet district, District Surgeon Thomas Perry reports on the disease’s symptoms, progression, environmental triggers, and fatal outcomes. He documents repeated outbreaks from 1819 to 1829, noting extremely high mortality rates among horses and the rapid course of the illness. Perry offers meticulous post-mortem observations—including severe pulmonary inflammation, congestion, and the presence of yellow frothy exudate in the lungs and trachea—identifying respiratory obstruction as the immediate cause of death. The paper also evaluates local beliefs, treatment attempts, and preventative practices. Perry argues that early intervention through aggressive bleeding, purgatives, and counter-irritation may offer limited benefit but only if administered at the very onset of symptoms, which are often subtle. He rejects the notion that the disease is infectious, suggesting instead an atmospheric or climatic cause linked to sudden temperature changes and exposure to cold, particularly in low-lying “Thornveld” areas. High-altitude grazing lands are proposed as the safest preventative measure. The article represents a foundational historical record of African horse sickness pathology, veterinary practice, and environmental understanding in early 19th-century Southern Africa.
On the substance called “Fine Linen” in the Sacred Writings
This article (abridged from the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal) examines the material referred to as “fine linen” in the Sacred Writings and argues that its interpretation has long been obscured by inconsistent terminology in ancient sources. While commonly understood as high-quality flax-based linen, the author challenges this assumption and traces historical debates among translators and commentators, including Calvin, Junius, and Tremellius, who proposed that the term might denote silk or silk-like substances. Scott contends that these interpretations more closely align with cotton, a soft fibre produced by several plant species—Gossypium arboreum, Gossypium herbaceum, and Bombax ceiba—cultivated in regions such as Egypt, Palestine, and India. Drawing on classical authorities such as Pliny, Ammianus, and Isidore, the article demonstrates how Greek and Roman writers frequently conflated cotton with linen, silk, or wool due to the limited technical vocabulary available at the time. Scott analyses the Hebrew term shesh, exploring its connection to whiteness and its application to various white materials, from textile fibres to marble. He further considers the limited presence of the word “cotton” in early English translations, noting that “fine linen” may have been used as an approximate rendering due to linguistic constraints at the time. The article concludes that many garments described in the Hebrew Scriptures—particularly those associated with priests, persons of high rank, and burial practices—were likely made of cotton rather than flax-based linen. Evidence from Egyptian embalming traditions and classical descriptions supports the claim that cotton, not flax, is the more plausible referent of the biblical term translated as “fine linen.”
This article reviews and summarises Brodigan’s Treatise on the Tobacco Plant as published in the Gardener’s Magazine, with particular focus on the history and agricultural practice of tobacco cultivation in Ireland. The review outlines the introduction of tobacco to Ireland in the 16th century, subsequent legislative restrictions, and the gradual expansion of the crop in the early 19th century. Detailed accounts are provided of Brodigan’s methods for sowing, transplanting, field preparation, protection of young plants, and techniques for summer management. The article further describes Brodigan’s multi-stage curing and fermentation processes, including temperature ranges, handling, drying, and preparation for storage. Comparative remarks are offered on American and French practices, suggested improvements to Irish curing methods, and the potential use of drying-houses heated by flues or steam. The review concludes with commentary on the economic viability of tobacco as a crop in Ireland, its labour demands, its role in rural employment cycles, and simplified approaches for smallholders and gardeners. Observations are also included on basic manufacturing practices for smoking tobacco, snuff, ropes, and rudimentary cigars.
Extracts from the journal kept during a visit to some of the interior tribes of southern Africa, in the year 1826
This journal extract details the experiences of Mr Andrew Geddes Bain during his 1826 expedition into the interior of Southern Africa, focusing on his visit to the Baralong tribe led by King Towan, and his subsequent journey toward the Bawanketzie kingdom. I. Visit to the Baralongs (August 14–16) Bain describes his arrival at Towan's temporary kraal, where he was greeted with a tumultuous yet friendly reception, though the women and children fled in terror of the "Macooa" (white man). The chief, Towan, was initially taciturn and reserved, only becoming more communicative after receiving a gift of tobacco. The greatest challenge at Towan's camp was the execrable water of the Mallopo River pool, which was composed of mud and animal/human waste. Despite the filth, Bain noted the Baralongs were preparing to move to their old town, expecting Bain's party to accompany them, an offer which Bain declined. II. Geography, Trade, and Customs Mallopo River: Its bed was not a running stream but a vley (pool), said to originate in the Bamarootzie country (N.E.). Trade: Towan bartered a single ox, but the Baralongs discouraged the travellers from proceeding, spinning exaggerated tales of Mantatee cruelties, which Bain strongly doubted. Customs: Bain noted the Bichuana hooka (a water pipe made from a gemsbok horn) used for smoking tobacco. He also observed the singular custom of all Bichuana kraals being built at a distance (half a mile to three miles) from their water sources, possibly to attract wild animals into their surrounding pit-falls. III. Journey to the Bawanketzies (August 16–20) The party departed without a guide, relying on their compass, until their paid guide, Manghela, rejoined them. The route was difficult, passing through a thick camel-thorn forest. Bain noted a scarcity of water, forcing the use of contaminated pool water, which caused illness (Hospital Wood). At Korea (August 17), the wells were deep pits in the sand, frequently choked by elephants. The party eventually reached Sibootzaanie (August 19), finding two fine ponds/lakes of excellent water—the first welcome sight of water and distant mountains since leaving the Chae lake. Hunting: During the journey, Bain shot a large white rhinoceros in a dramatic encounter where the wounded animal charged. The party was saved by dropping behind a bush, and the rhinoceros inadvertently dislodged a local herdsman from a tree. Wildlife: The lakes at Sibootzaanie were frequented by game (quaggas, rhinoceroses, cameleopards), which approached with extreme caution due to the prevalence of pit-falls. Bain also regretfully missed a sighting of large aquatic birds that appeared to be black swans. The travellers were met by a friendly delegation from Sibigho, King of the Bawenketzie, who indicated that their visit would be welcome.
Abstract of a journal kept at the Mauritius, of the barometrical movements during the hurricane of the 23d February, 1824
This article presents meteorological observations, focusing on barometric pressure, recorded at an elevation of 900 feet above sea level during a severe hurricane that struck Mauritius on 23 February 1824. Pre-Storm Conditions (Feb 18–22): The preceding days were stormy with short gales, constant rain, and frequent thunder. However, the barometer—the sole reliable indicator of danger—was only slightly affected, never dropping more than one-tenth below its standard, and thus offered no warning of the impending catastrophe. Other signs included oppressive air, gloomy sky, clouded mountains, and heavy sea swells. Hurricane Progression (Feb 23): The wind increased overnight, and by 6 A.M. on the 23rd, the barometer had dropped to 28" 9', officially declaring the hurricane. Thermal and General Observations: The thermometer remained remarkably steady at 73∘ throughout the entire gale. The greatest recorded range for the thermometer during February 1824 was 13∘. Other monthly statistics included 21 days of rain, 10 days of thunder/lightning, 5 rainbows, and 8 lunar rainbows. The observations confirm the standard hurricane pattern: an initial severe gale, a significant barometric drop to the minimum pressure at the centre/eye, a temporary lull with an associated change in wind direction, followed by a second severe gale as the storm passes.
Remarks on the culture of exotic vegetables, adapted for the soil and climate of South Africa
This paper is the third part of a series of articles. See the first part: https://doi.org/10.21504/saqj.13.2653. This paper provides detailed horticultural instructions for the successful cultivation of several valuable exotic plants—Coffee, Turmeric, Ginger, Arrow-root, Chestnut, and Walnut—within the climate and soil conditions of the South African Cape Colony. Cultivation Highlights: Coffee (Coffea Arabica): Best raised from fresh seeds in a sandy loam. Plants should be set out at six feet apart in a quincunx pattern. Crucially, they must be headed down (pruned) to 9–12 inches initially to encourage lateral, fan-like branches, limiting height to 10–12 feet for better yields and easier gathering. The author suggests certain districts (Graaff-Reinet, Albany, George) are particularly suited, but doubts the profitability of large plantations due to foreign competition. Spice/Tuber Plants (Curcuma, Zingeber, Maranta): Turmeric, Ginger, and Arrow-root require similar treatment, mimicking their native habitat: moist, sheltered, and shaded locations with a rich, black vegetable soil (humus), which must often be substituted for the natural loam/clay. Covering beds with decayed leaves is essential to maintain warmth and moisture. For quick growth, especially for Arrow-root, water should be applied from reservoirs (warm water), not directly from cold springs, to avoid retarding growth. Nut Trees (Castanea, Juglans): Chestnut (Castanea Vesca): Recommended for both timber and fruit. Prefers sandy loam with a dry bottom. Propagation is via large nuts; early fruit can be obtained by grafting by approach (arching) onto established trees. Walnut (Juglans Regia): Requires loamy soil with sand/gravel. Fruit can be hastened by grafting and ringing (removing a ring of bark, then plastering the wound). The author emphasises that the primary goal of this expanded culture is to enhance the domestic comforts and resources of the community, rather than solely creating articles for exportation.
Substance of the journal of two trading travellers, and of the communications of a missionary, regarding their recent visits to the countries in the rear of the Portuguese Settlement ot De la Goa Bay
This paper presents extracts from the journal of two trading travellers, Scoon and Luckie, detailing their 1829 expedition from the Griqua country (Campbell's Dorp) through the Sichuana (Bichuana) territory towards the interior regions in the rear of De la Goa Bay. I. Route and Geography The journey began at Campbell's Dorp (June 16, 1829) and proceeded generally N.E., crossing the Hart River and passing various fountains (Daniel's Kuyl, Bootschap, Kriegar's, Patti). The route traversed large, red, sandy flats and eventually reached improving country with fine pasturage and mimosa forests. The explorers crossed several rivers, including the Mala Moloppo (separating the Morolong and Morutze tribes) and the Moriqua River. The Moriqua River is described as rapid, clear, and about 40 feet wide, running N. by N.E. before entering a high ridge of mountains (running E. and W.), which the natives say leads to the sea. The travellers traced it for 150 miles. The terrain becomes mountainous (general range E. and W.) near the Morutzi town of Hammasiclia. II. Indigenous Tribes and Settlements The expedition passed through Morolong and Morutze territory, meeting Batlokwa Bichuanas and Corannas. The travellers visited a deserted Kurreechane (Chuan) and a new town (c. 2000 inhabitants) where they were admitted to copper and iron mines. The iron ore was so rich it required only three beatings to form into bars. They were met by messengers from Malacatzie, a Zulo/Mantatote captain (brother to the late Chaka), who extended a strong invitation and offered oxen. They encountered extraordinary living arrangements, including 17 conical huts built in the branches of a single tree (likely a mimosa) for shelter from the numerous lions. III. Trade and Political Context The travellers reached Malacatzie's main kraal (c. 3,000 head of cattle) and conducted a highly profitable trade, valued at nearly £1800 sterling. Malacatzie ruled over about 80,000 people (Zoolah in language, dress, and arms), having conquered the land from the Batswana tribes 12 years prior. He was tyrannical and desired trade and arms/ammunition to resist his enemy, Dingaan (Chaka's successor). Upon the chief's request, Rev. Mr Archbell of Platteberg immediately visited, tracing one of the main branches of the Gariep (Orange) River to its source via a new route. The country is noted for its fertility, abundant water, ten species of vines, and a plentiful population of elephants. IV. Conclusion The author concludes that the friendly disposition of the natives, the healthy climate, fertility, and available barter property offer significant advantages for future trade and exploration, promising important discoveries in this previously unknown region of Southern Africa.
Notes on the formation of extensive conglomerate and gravel deposits
This paper (extracted from the Philosophical Magazine of March, 1830) investigates the adequacy of currently observable geological processes ("actual causes")—specifically the action of seas and rivers—to explain the formation of extensive, ancient conglomerate and gravel deposits found in the Earth's crust. De la Beche examines three main mechanisms: Action of Tidal Seas on Coasts: The sea primarily acts to throw rounded gravel (shingles) back onto the land, forming beaches and barriers (such as the Chesil Bank), especially during gales. There is little evidence of these large pebbles travelling outwards into deep oceanic waters to be consolidated. Action of Rivers on their Beds: Rivers are most effective at producing gravel in rapid, mountainous regions. However, natural obstacles, such as lakes, frequently interrupt their course, causing them to deposit their detritus locally (e.g., the Rhone and Ticino depositing gravel in the Lakes of Geneva and Maggiore). Long rivers typically transport only sand or mud to the sea, not pebbles. Discharge into Seas (Tidal/Tideless): Large rivers discharging into seas generally carry fine detritus (sand/mud) to form deltas or bars. Small tidal rivers are often blocked up by the sea, which forces the detritus back towards the land. Conclusion: The author argues that contemporary processes, acting over time, can only produce gravel/shingle along narrow coastal lines or limited riverbeds. To account for the extensive, widespread, and voluminous conglomerate deposits observed in the geological record, a greater and more general force is required. This force is attributed to violent movements in the mass of waters—debacles or deluges—which must have resulted from the great, planet-wide convulsions and dislocations of strata (faults and mountain building) that occurred at various epochs. These major catastrophic events would have provided the power needed to collect and amass vast quantities of gravel.
A description of the birds inhabiting the south of Africa
The continuation of Dr Andrew Smith's paper focuses on several species of raptors (birds of prey) found in southern Africa, primarily describing their physical characteristics (plumage, size, and colour of soft parts) and, in some cases, their habits and distribution.