"…THOSE WHO DID IT HAVE POWER...” MUSIC, HEALTH AND HEGEMONY IN TANZANIA IN THE CONTEXT OF HIV/AIDS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21504/amj.v10i2.2039Keywords:
HIV/AIDS, knowledge, TanzaniaAbstract
This article investigates the display of power relations in the production of health knowledge about HIV/AIDS through music that addresses the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Tanzania. It specifically looks at the intersection of the state and religion in both shaping culture and influencing decision-making in the production of health knowledge on HIV/ AIDS. I argue that the study of HIV/AIDS and the creative process of music about HIV/ AIDS is also the study of power relations at multiple levels. Using two recordings, 'Mambo kwa socks'(Things with socks on) and 'Usione soo,sema naye” (Do not feel shy, speak to him or her), which have been forbidden from public broadcast by the government of Tanzania as evidence, I suggest that musical performances that focus on HIV/AIDS involve the production of multiple, often dissonant and antagonistic interpretations among individuals because of the musical styles employed and because of the interpreters' different ages, social positions, context, social and historical spaces.
References
Askew, Kelly M. 2002. Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Assen, Nils von der. 2012 "Resonation: Muziki wa Dansi In Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.” MA Thesis African Languages & Cultures, Leiden University/African Studies Centre.
Barz, Gregory. 2006. HIV/AIDS and Music in Uganda. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barz, Gregory and Judah Cohen. 2008 "Music and HIV/AIDS in Africa.” In The Garland Handbook of African Music, Second Edition, Ruth M. Stone, ed. 148—159. New York and London: Routledge.
Barz, Gregory and Judah Cohen. 2011 "Introduction: The Culture of AIDS: Hope and Healing Through the Arts in Africa.” In The Culture of AIDS in Africa: Hope and Healing Through the Arts, Gregory Barz and Judah Cohen, eds. 3—19. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Barnett, Tony, and Alan Whiteside. 2006. AIDS in the Twenty-First-Century: Disease and Globalization. 2nd Edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Becker, Felicitas, and Wenzel Geissler. 2009 "Introduction: Searching for Pathways in a Landscape of Death: Religion and AIDS in Africa.” In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. 1—25. Boston: Brill.
Bender, Wolfgang. 1991. Sweet Mother, Modern African Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1990. In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology, translated by Matthew Adamson. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Buchannan, Donna A. 1995 "Metaphors of Power, Metaphors of Truth: The Politics of Music Professionalism in Bulgarian Folk Orchestras.” Ethnomusicology 39(3): 381—416.
Collins, John. 2002 "The Generational Factor in Ghanaian Music: Concert Parties, Highlife, Simpa, Kpanogo, Gospel and local Techno-Pop.” In Playing with Identities in Contemporary African Music, Mai Palmberg and Annemette Kirkegaard, eds. 60—74. Uppsala: Nordiska-Afrika Institutet.
Comaroff, Jean, and John Comaroff. 2004 "Notes on Afromodernity and the Neo World Order: an afterword.” In Producing African Futures: Ritual and Reproduction in a Neoliberal Age, Brad Weiss, ed. 329—348. Boston: Brill.
Dilger, Honsjorg. 2009 "Healing the Wounds of Modernity: Salvation, Community and Care in a Neo-Pentecostal Church in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.” In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. 255—282. Boston: Brill.
Donner, Philip. 1980 "Music Forms in Tanzania and their socioeconomic base.” In Jipe Moyo: Transactions of the Finnish Anthropological Society No. 9, Philip Donner, ed. 88-98. Helsinki: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Englert, Birgit. 2001 "Africa Raps Back: Reflections on Hip Hop from Tanzania and South Africa.” In Crossing Borders. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Africa, Schröder Anne, ed. 77—98. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers.
Englert, Birgit. 2003 "Bongo Flava (Still) Hidden "Underground”: Rap from Morogoro, Tanzania.” Stichproben 5/3: 73—92.
Foucault, Michel. 1998 "Technologies of the Self.” In Technologies of the Self, Luther Martin, Huck Gutman and Patrick H. Hutton, eds. 19—49. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Graebner, Werner. 1989 "Whose Music? The Songs of Remmy Ongala and Orchestra Super Matimila.” Popular Music 8 (4): 243—258.
Graebner, Werner. 2007 "The Ngoma Impulse: From Club to Nightclub in Dar Es Salaam.” In Dar Es Salaam: Histories from an Emerging African Metropolis, James R. Brennan, Andrew Burton and Yusuf Lawi, eds. 177—197. Nairobi: The British Institute in Eastern Africa.
Haas, Peter Jan, and Thomas Gesthuizen. 2000 "Ndani ya Bongo: Kiswahili Rap Keeping it Real.” In Mashindano! Competitive Music Performance in East Africa, Frank Gunderson and Gregory Barz, eds. 278—294. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota.
Herman, Shadrack M. 1979 "Radio Tanzania: Kamati ya Uchambuzi wa Muziki kwa Matumizi ya RTD”: 1—4.
Herzfeld, Michael. 1997. Cultural Intimacy: Social Poetics in the Nation-State. New York: Routledge.
Hilhorst, Sean. 2009 "Remmy Ongala: Capitalist Transition and Popular Music in Tanzania.” Journal of African Cultural Studies 21(2): 105—126.
Iliffe, John. 2006. The African AIDS Epidemic: A History. Athens: Ohio University Press.
Katunzi, Peregia A. 2002 Sukari Yenye Sumu. Bukoba: Educational Publisher Limited.
Kirkegaard, Annemette. 2004 "Remmy Ongala-Moderating Through Music.” In Sounds of Change-Social and Political Features of Music in Africa, Stig-Magnus Thorsen, ed. 57—69. Stockholm: Sidastudies.
Kweka, A. N. 1995 "One Party Democracy and Multi-Party State.” In Mwalimu: The Influence of Nyerere, Colin Legum and Geoffrey Mmari, eds. 61—79. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota.
Martin, Robert. 1974. Personal Freedom and the Law in Tanzania: A Study of Socialist State Administration. Dar es Salaam, Lusaka and Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press.
Martin, Stephen. 1982 "Music in Urban East Africa: Five Genres in Dar es Salaam.” Journal of African Studies 9(3): 155—63.
Maxwell, David. 2005 "The Durawall of Faith: Pentecostal Spirituality in Neo-Liberal Zimbabwe”. Journal of Religion in Africa 35(1): 4—32.
Mbilinyi, Marjorie, and Naomi Kaihula. 2000. AIDS, Sexuality and Gender in Africa: Collective Strategies and Struggles in Zambia, Carolyn Baylies and Janet Bujra, eds. 76—95. London: Routledge
McNeill, Fraser G. and Deborah James. 2011 "Singing Songs of AIDS in Venda, South Africa.” In The Culture of AIDS in Africa: Hope and Healing Through the Arts, Gregory Barz and Judah Cohen, eds. 193—212. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McNeill, Fraser G. 2014. AIDS, Politics, and Music in South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mutembei, A.K, M.A.C. Emmelin, J.L.P Lugalla, and L.G. Dahlgren. 2002 "Communication about AIDS—Changes in Understanding and Coping with Help of Language in Urban Kagera, Tanzania.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 37(1): 1—16.
Ndomondo, Mathayo Bernard. 2008 "Music and Politics in Tanzania.” In Power and Nationalism in Modern Africa, Toyin Falola and Salah M. Hassan, eds. 341—359. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press.
Nguyen, Vinh-Kim. 2010. The Republic of Therapy: Triage and Sovereignty in West Africa's Times of AIDS. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Nkamba, Suleiman Seif. n.d. "Muundo na Majukumu ya Kamati ya Uchambuzi wa Muziki RTD”: 1—3.
Nkamba, Suleiman Seif. n.d. "Nyimbo kwa Matumizi ya Radio Tanzania”: 1—2.
Ntarangwi, Mwenda. 2009. East African Hip Hop: Youth culture and Globalization. Urban and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Nyerere, Julius Kambarage. 1969. Freedom and Unity. Oxford University Press, Dar es Salaam.
Obeng, Samuel Gyasi. 2012 "Speaking the Unspeakable Through Hiplife: A Discursive Construction of Ghanaian Political Discourse.” In Music, Performance and African Identities, Toyin Falola and Tyler Fleming, eds. 296—315. New York and London: Routledge.
Perullo, Alex. 2005 "Hooligans and Heroes: Youth Identity and Hip Hop in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.” Africa Today 51/4: 75—101.
Perullo, Alex. 2007 " 'Here's a Little Something Local': An Early history of hip hop in Dar es Salaam 1984—1997.” In Dar Es Salaam: Histories from an Emerging African Metropolis, James R. Brennan, Andrew Burton and Yusuf Lawi eds. 250—272. Nairobi: The British Institute in Eastern Africa.
Perullo, Alex. 2011. Live from Dar es Salaam: Popular Music and Tanzania's Music Economy. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
Putzel, James 2003 "Institutionalizing an Emergency Response: HIV/AIDS and Governance in Uganda and Senegal.” A Report Submitted to the Department for International Development.
Remes, Pieter. 1999 "Global Popular Musics and Changing Awareness of Urban Tanzanian Youth.” Yearbook for Traditional Music 31: 1—26.
Rice, Timothy. 2001 "Reflections on Music and Meaning: Metaphor, Signification and Control in the Bulgarian Case.” British Journal of Ethnomusicology 10(1): 19—38.
Rose, Tricia. 1994. Black Noise. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.
Sadgrove, Jo. 2009 "Keeping Up Appearances': Sex and Religion amongst University Students in Uganda”. In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. Pp. 223—254. Boston: Brill.
Sanga, Imani. 2006 "Muziki Wa Injili: The Temporal and Spatial Aesthetics of Popular Church Music in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania (1980s—2005)”. PhD Thesis, University of Kwazulu Natal.
Setel, Philip W. 1999. A Plague of Paradoxes: AIDS, Culture, and Demography in Northern Tanzania. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Shivji, Issa G. 2006. Let the People Speak: Tanzania down the Road to Neo-Liberalism. Dakar: CODESRIA.
Songoyi, Elias. M. 1989 "The Artist and the State in Tanzania; a Study of Two Singers- Kalikali and Mwinamila.” MA Thesis: University of Dar es Salaam.
Stambach, Amy. 2000. Lessons from Kilimanjaro: Schooling, community, and gender in east Africa. New York: Routledge.
Stokes, Martin. 2010. The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music. Illinois and London: University of Chicago Press.
Suriano, Maria. 2007 "Making the Modern: Contestations over Muziki wa Dansi in Tanganyika, ca. 1945—1961”. African Studies 70 (3): 393—414.
Svensson, Jonas. 2009. '"Muslims Have Instructions:” HIV/AIDS, Modernity and Islamic Religious Education in Kisumu, Kenya.' In AIDS and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. 189—219. Boston: Brill.
The African. 2009. "Government to find out Why Mwinyi was Slapped,” March 12.
The Citizen. 2008. "Government and Church in New Condom Controversy ,” March 25.
The Muslim Council of Tanzania. 2007. AIDS Policy Guide for the BAKWATA.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2001. National Policy on HIV/AIDS.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2002. National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2003—2007.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2007. The Second National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2008—2012.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2012. The Third National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2013/14—2017/18.
This Day. 2009. "Mwinyi Assault Attributed to 'Security lapse.'” March 11.
Turino, Thomas. 1999. "Signs of Imagination, Identity, and Experience: A Peircian Semiotic Theory for Music.” Ethnomusicology 43(2): 221—255.
Van Buren, Kathleen. 2006. "Stealing Elephants, Creating Futures: Exploring Uses of Music and other Arts for Community Education in Nairobi, Kenya.” PhD dissertation: University of California, Los Angeles.
Yankah, Kwesi. 2001 "Nana Ampadu, the Sung-Tale Metaphor, and Protest Discourse in Contemporary Ghana.” In African Words, African Voices: Critical Practices in Oral History, Luise White, Stephen Miescher and David William Cohen, eds. 54—73. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Discography:
Chidumule, Cosmas. 1998. Yesu ni Bwana, La Mgambo Likilia: F.M. Music Bank (Compact Cassette).
Filmography:
Healthscope Tanzania. 2004. Ishi Phase II: Kuhusu kusubiri, kuwa waaminifu au kutumia kondom: (VHS). Online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwgfYjpDRis
Personal communication with author:
Kagya, Andrew. 30 November 2008.
Makoye, Herbert. 14 May 2009.
Thomas, Stara. 5 May 2009.
Zorro, Banana. 25 May 2009.
Sendoro, Chediel. 23 May 2009.
Assen, Nils von der. 2012 "Resonation: Muziki wa Dansi In Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.” MA Thesis African Languages & Cultures, Leiden University/African Studies Centre.
Barz, Gregory. 2006. HIV/AIDS and Music in Uganda. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Barz, Gregory and Judah Cohen. 2008 "Music and HIV/AIDS in Africa.” In The Garland Handbook of African Music, Second Edition, Ruth M. Stone, ed. 148—159. New York and London: Routledge.
Barz, Gregory and Judah Cohen. 2011 "Introduction: The Culture of AIDS: Hope and Healing Through the Arts in Africa.” In The Culture of AIDS in Africa: Hope and Healing Through the Arts, Gregory Barz and Judah Cohen, eds. 3—19. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Barnett, Tony, and Alan Whiteside. 2006. AIDS in the Twenty-First-Century: Disease and Globalization. 2nd Edition. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Becker, Felicitas, and Wenzel Geissler. 2009 "Introduction: Searching for Pathways in a Landscape of Death: Religion and AIDS in Africa.” In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. 1—25. Boston: Brill.
Bender, Wolfgang. 1991. Sweet Mother, Modern African Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1990. In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology, translated by Matthew Adamson. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Buchannan, Donna A. 1995 "Metaphors of Power, Metaphors of Truth: The Politics of Music Professionalism in Bulgarian Folk Orchestras.” Ethnomusicology 39(3): 381—416.
Collins, John. 2002 "The Generational Factor in Ghanaian Music: Concert Parties, Highlife, Simpa, Kpanogo, Gospel and local Techno-Pop.” In Playing with Identities in Contemporary African Music, Mai Palmberg and Annemette Kirkegaard, eds. 60—74. Uppsala: Nordiska-Afrika Institutet.
Comaroff, Jean, and John Comaroff. 2004 "Notes on Afromodernity and the Neo World Order: an afterword.” In Producing African Futures: Ritual and Reproduction in a Neoliberal Age, Brad Weiss, ed. 329—348. Boston: Brill.
Dilger, Honsjorg. 2009 "Healing the Wounds of Modernity: Salvation, Community and Care in a Neo-Pentecostal Church in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.” In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. 255—282. Boston: Brill.
Donner, Philip. 1980 "Music Forms in Tanzania and their socioeconomic base.” In Jipe Moyo: Transactions of the Finnish Anthropological Society No. 9, Philip Donner, ed. 88-98. Helsinki: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Englert, Birgit. 2001 "Africa Raps Back: Reflections on Hip Hop from Tanzania and South Africa.” In Crossing Borders. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Africa, Schröder Anne, ed. 77—98. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers.
Englert, Birgit. 2003 "Bongo Flava (Still) Hidden "Underground”: Rap from Morogoro, Tanzania.” Stichproben 5/3: 73—92.
Foucault, Michel. 1998 "Technologies of the Self.” In Technologies of the Self, Luther Martin, Huck Gutman and Patrick H. Hutton, eds. 19—49. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Graebner, Werner. 1989 "Whose Music? The Songs of Remmy Ongala and Orchestra Super Matimila.” Popular Music 8 (4): 243—258.
Graebner, Werner. 2007 "The Ngoma Impulse: From Club to Nightclub in Dar Es Salaam.” In Dar Es Salaam: Histories from an Emerging African Metropolis, James R. Brennan, Andrew Burton and Yusuf Lawi, eds. 177—197. Nairobi: The British Institute in Eastern Africa.
Haas, Peter Jan, and Thomas Gesthuizen. 2000 "Ndani ya Bongo: Kiswahili Rap Keeping it Real.” In Mashindano! Competitive Music Performance in East Africa, Frank Gunderson and Gregory Barz, eds. 278—294. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota.
Herman, Shadrack M. 1979 "Radio Tanzania: Kamati ya Uchambuzi wa Muziki kwa Matumizi ya RTD”: 1—4.
Herzfeld, Michael. 1997. Cultural Intimacy: Social Poetics in the Nation-State. New York: Routledge.
Hilhorst, Sean. 2009 "Remmy Ongala: Capitalist Transition and Popular Music in Tanzania.” Journal of African Cultural Studies 21(2): 105—126.
Iliffe, John. 2006. The African AIDS Epidemic: A History. Athens: Ohio University Press.
Katunzi, Peregia A. 2002 Sukari Yenye Sumu. Bukoba: Educational Publisher Limited.
Kirkegaard, Annemette. 2004 "Remmy Ongala-Moderating Through Music.” In Sounds of Change-Social and Political Features of Music in Africa, Stig-Magnus Thorsen, ed. 57—69. Stockholm: Sidastudies.
Kweka, A. N. 1995 "One Party Democracy and Multi-Party State.” In Mwalimu: The Influence of Nyerere, Colin Legum and Geoffrey Mmari, eds. 61—79. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota.
Martin, Robert. 1974. Personal Freedom and the Law in Tanzania: A Study of Socialist State Administration. Dar es Salaam, Lusaka and Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press.
Martin, Stephen. 1982 "Music in Urban East Africa: Five Genres in Dar es Salaam.” Journal of African Studies 9(3): 155—63.
Maxwell, David. 2005 "The Durawall of Faith: Pentecostal Spirituality in Neo-Liberal Zimbabwe”. Journal of Religion in Africa 35(1): 4—32.
Mbilinyi, Marjorie, and Naomi Kaihula. 2000. AIDS, Sexuality and Gender in Africa: Collective Strategies and Struggles in Zambia, Carolyn Baylies and Janet Bujra, eds. 76—95. London: Routledge
McNeill, Fraser G. and Deborah James. 2011 "Singing Songs of AIDS in Venda, South Africa.” In The Culture of AIDS in Africa: Hope and Healing Through the Arts, Gregory Barz and Judah Cohen, eds. 193—212. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McNeill, Fraser G. 2014. AIDS, Politics, and Music in South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mutembei, A.K, M.A.C. Emmelin, J.L.P Lugalla, and L.G. Dahlgren. 2002 "Communication about AIDS—Changes in Understanding and Coping with Help of Language in Urban Kagera, Tanzania.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 37(1): 1—16.
Ndomondo, Mathayo Bernard. 2008 "Music and Politics in Tanzania.” In Power and Nationalism in Modern Africa, Toyin Falola and Salah M. Hassan, eds. 341—359. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press.
Nguyen, Vinh-Kim. 2010. The Republic of Therapy: Triage and Sovereignty in West Africa's Times of AIDS. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Nkamba, Suleiman Seif. n.d. "Muundo na Majukumu ya Kamati ya Uchambuzi wa Muziki RTD”: 1—3.
Nkamba, Suleiman Seif. n.d. "Nyimbo kwa Matumizi ya Radio Tanzania”: 1—2.
Ntarangwi, Mwenda. 2009. East African Hip Hop: Youth culture and Globalization. Urban and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Nyerere, Julius Kambarage. 1969. Freedom and Unity. Oxford University Press, Dar es Salaam.
Obeng, Samuel Gyasi. 2012 "Speaking the Unspeakable Through Hiplife: A Discursive Construction of Ghanaian Political Discourse.” In Music, Performance and African Identities, Toyin Falola and Tyler Fleming, eds. 296—315. New York and London: Routledge.
Perullo, Alex. 2005 "Hooligans and Heroes: Youth Identity and Hip Hop in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.” Africa Today 51/4: 75—101.
Perullo, Alex. 2007 " 'Here's a Little Something Local': An Early history of hip hop in Dar es Salaam 1984—1997.” In Dar Es Salaam: Histories from an Emerging African Metropolis, James R. Brennan, Andrew Burton and Yusuf Lawi eds. 250—272. Nairobi: The British Institute in Eastern Africa.
Perullo, Alex. 2011. Live from Dar es Salaam: Popular Music and Tanzania's Music Economy. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
Putzel, James 2003 "Institutionalizing an Emergency Response: HIV/AIDS and Governance in Uganda and Senegal.” A Report Submitted to the Department for International Development.
Remes, Pieter. 1999 "Global Popular Musics and Changing Awareness of Urban Tanzanian Youth.” Yearbook for Traditional Music 31: 1—26.
Rice, Timothy. 2001 "Reflections on Music and Meaning: Metaphor, Signification and Control in the Bulgarian Case.” British Journal of Ethnomusicology 10(1): 19—38.
Rose, Tricia. 1994. Black Noise. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.
Sadgrove, Jo. 2009 "Keeping Up Appearances': Sex and Religion amongst University Students in Uganda”. In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. Pp. 223—254. Boston: Brill.
Sanga, Imani. 2006 "Muziki Wa Injili: The Temporal and Spatial Aesthetics of Popular Church Music in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania (1980s—2005)”. PhD Thesis, University of Kwazulu Natal.
Setel, Philip W. 1999. A Plague of Paradoxes: AIDS, Culture, and Demography in Northern Tanzania. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Shivji, Issa G. 2006. Let the People Speak: Tanzania down the Road to Neo-Liberalism. Dakar: CODESRIA.
Songoyi, Elias. M. 1989 "The Artist and the State in Tanzania; a Study of Two Singers- Kalikali and Mwinamila.” MA Thesis: University of Dar es Salaam.
Stambach, Amy. 2000. Lessons from Kilimanjaro: Schooling, community, and gender in east Africa. New York: Routledge.
Stokes, Martin. 2010. The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music. Illinois and London: University of Chicago Press.
Suriano, Maria. 2007 "Making the Modern: Contestations over Muziki wa Dansi in Tanganyika, ca. 1945—1961”. African Studies 70 (3): 393—414.
Svensson, Jonas. 2009. '"Muslims Have Instructions:” HIV/AIDS, Modernity and Islamic Religious Education in Kisumu, Kenya.' In AIDS and Religious Practice in Africa, Felicitas Becker and Wenzel Geissler, eds. 189—219. Boston: Brill.
The African. 2009. "Government to find out Why Mwinyi was Slapped,” March 12.
The Citizen. 2008. "Government and Church in New Condom Controversy ,” March 25.
The Muslim Council of Tanzania. 2007. AIDS Policy Guide for the BAKWATA.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2001. National Policy on HIV/AIDS.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2002. National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2003—2007.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2007. The Second National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2008—2012.
The United Republic of Tanzania. 2012. The Third National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2013/14—2017/18.
This Day. 2009. "Mwinyi Assault Attributed to 'Security lapse.'” March 11.
Turino, Thomas. 1999. "Signs of Imagination, Identity, and Experience: A Peircian Semiotic Theory for Music.” Ethnomusicology 43(2): 221—255.
Van Buren, Kathleen. 2006. "Stealing Elephants, Creating Futures: Exploring Uses of Music and other Arts for Community Education in Nairobi, Kenya.” PhD dissertation: University of California, Los Angeles.
Yankah, Kwesi. 2001 "Nana Ampadu, the Sung-Tale Metaphor, and Protest Discourse in Contemporary Ghana.” In African Words, African Voices: Critical Practices in Oral History, Luise White, Stephen Miescher and David William Cohen, eds. 54—73. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Discography:
Chidumule, Cosmas. 1998. Yesu ni Bwana, La Mgambo Likilia: F.M. Music Bank (Compact Cassette).
Filmography:
Healthscope Tanzania. 2004. Ishi Phase II: Kuhusu kusubiri, kuwa waaminifu au kutumia kondom: (VHS). Online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwgfYjpDRis
Personal communication with author:
Kagya, Andrew. 30 November 2008.
Makoye, Herbert. 14 May 2009.
Thomas, Stara. 5 May 2009.
Zorro, Banana. 25 May 2009.
Sendoro, Chediel. 23 May 2009.
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2016-11-01
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How to Cite
“"…THOSE WHO DID IT HAVE POWER. ” MUSIC, HEALTH AND HEGEMONY IN TANZANIA IN THE CONTEXT OF HIV AIDS”. 2016. African Music : Journal of the International Library of African Music 10 (2): 77-107. https://doi.org/10.21504/amj.v10i2.2039.
